By Helen Langehanenberg With Beth Baumert
A rising star in Germany's dressage community explains the training quality of submission and tells how you can develop it in your horse.Things I find worth reading
When the horse finally takes the contact, three things happen:
1. For a moment, he may get strong,
2. Then, the contact balances the horse more on the hind legs, and
3. Finally, he becomes soft in the hand.
Once this happens, the horse learns that working with me is comfortable. He reacts on my aids, and then we can do movements. Even when the horse doesn't do movements perfectly, he tries to understand what I want. A dressage horse's ability to learn movements is much easier when the horse is submissive. But how does the rider make his horse submissive?
Rider Position
A horse's response can never be better than the rider's aids, and the rider's aids can only be as good as her seat. The correct position of the rider is what makes the aids clear. If you want to have a supple and loose horse, you must have a supple and loose body without stiffening or sitting against the rhythm or the motion. Even when you ask your horse for more energy, you must stay loose. And when you need to have more contact for a moment, you still must stay loose. Then all the aids, including the weight aids, work together. Otherwise, it's impossible for the horse to balance.
The FEI definition describes submission as "obedience, but not subordination." It means that although I'm the leader, I am a benevolent leader, not a forceful or violent one. That said, when my aids are precise and kind, I am quite persistent that my horse obey them. That is, my aids are "consequent."
Clear and Consequent Aids
When the horse is free in a herd, he always has a trustworthy leader he can rely on. Now, under saddle, the rider must be the leader. When a horse clearly understands what the rider wants, he is happier. He trusts a rider who is "consequent," meaning a rider who expects a consequence from her aids is easiest for the horse to understand; she becomes trustworthy because she is consistent.
If the rider is uncertain, the horse doesn't experience a clear consequence for ignoring the aids, and as a result, the horse's understanding suffers, and he can't fully trust the rider. There can only be harmony when the horse has a clear leader that he responds to without question. The horse needs to know precisely what you want, so it's best to be clear. For example, if I want to canter from walk, I give one aid, and the horse has to react on the first aid with consequence, rather than deciding for himself when the canter will begin. My horses have confidence in me, which is why they pay attention to me.
Exercises for Submission
One of the reasons why my horses have confidence in me is they know what to expect. The warm-up and work sessions have interesting variations, but the general routine is always the same. I always start by loosening my horse in a free walk for at least 10 minutes but usually longer.
Warming up. The warm-up is the same for horses of all ages. I start with a normal trot rising in a comfortable tempo so my horse can get warm. I don't go too fast because that would create tension, but within my horse's normal trot, I ride invisible half halts--only to feel my horse's reaction, so if I want a moment of collection, I know my horse will come back. Also, I ask for slightly more within this normal trot. I close my leg a bit to confirm that he is in front of my leg and that he wants to go forward from his hind legs.
Next, I do transitions on a 20-meter circle. With a young horse, I might do one round of trot and then one round canter. With a more educated horse, I will do the transitions more frequently. During these transitions, I improve my horse's reactions so we can be very coordinated.
When the horse starts to warm up, I ride the figure-eight. You don't want the work to be boring. When you do different things, the horse finds the work fun, and he concentrates more on you. In the figure-of-eight, I give a little half halt each time I change the rein to I make sure I can feel my horse's balancing reaction.
During this part of my warm-up, I don't do any exercise that requires my horse to cross his legs, such as leg yield or shoulder-in. Also, with a young horse, I never do any sitting trot. In the middle of the horse's
4-year-old year, I start sitting, bit by bit, after the warm-up.
I take frequent breaks and let my horse walk on a long rein so he can relax for several minutes. If your horse is tired, he won't enjoy the work. Also, he won't be able to concentrate, be loose, swing through his back or carry weight on his hind legs. He needs to have enough power in order to have these positive qualities. I also stretch my horses often in trot and canter.
More transitions. I learned the principle behind transitions from Ingrid Klimke, and I find that they are the best exercise for developing the horse's balance. Here's an example of what you want to achieve when you ride a trot-walk-trot exercise:
- As you do the downward transition from trot to walk, you close the horse's frame and bring his hind legs under his center of gravity so he engages and carries more weight behind.
- Then, when your horse is engaged, you go directly to trot again. In that upward transition, you want to open the neck a bit, but keep the hind-leg carriage you had in the walk.
With transitions that achieve this engagement, horses learn, step-by-step, to carry more weight with the hindquarters in all the work, whether they are in a working trot or extended trot. After all, the horse can only do a medium or extension if he is able to carry weight on the hind legs, otherwise, he is running. When horses go more forward, they must learn to keep carrying the weight behind, rather than going on the forehand.
The work session. After the horse is warmed up, I ask for leg yield or shoulder-in to supple the horse further and continue to encourage him to react on my leg aids. Half pirouettes in walk also help the bending as well as the horse's reaction to, and coordination with, the rein, weight and leg aids. On some days, I continue with movements that I want to improve or I go on to teach my horse something new. But anytime I feel the horse is getting tense in his work, I do a walk break or let him stretch so he can relax. In fact, there are days, when we only do stretching.
After the work session, it's important that I allow my horse to stretch in trot-canter transitions, and then I walk him again, long enough to cool him down.
Contact for Submission
During all the work, be aware that the horse's mouth is sensitive, so the contact should be soft and steady, and the rein aids should be used with feeling. When the rider takes the rein, the horse should follow. But, in the next moment, when the horse yields and gets soft to the rein aid, the rider must give the rein. As a result, the horse learns, step-by-step, that when he is submissive to the aids, he is comfortable and will be allowed to move freely. He trusts the rider as his leader. He carries himself without restriction, and his whole body swings in rhythm, making horse-and-rider harmony easy.
Video below: Training for the finals of the N?rnberger Burgpokal in Frankfurt, Germany, Helen Langehanenberg rides her Prix St George test with Fleur Rubin. "I was really happy with this test," says Langehanenberg. "On the one hand, because we were winning with 72 percent and on the other hand, because in my opinion it is a really good test. There were no mistakes, Fleur Rubin was really concentrated and listening to my aids. Her tail is quiet, she is chewing and totally supple."
Helen Langehanenberg, a former champion pony rider and student of Ingrid Klimke, was given the ride on Damon Hill in 2005 when Klimke was injured, and the pair won the World Championship for 5-year-olds. Now training with Klaus Balkenhol, she was the reserve rider for the German Olympic team in 2008 on her mare Responsible. She and her husband, Sebastian, a Pferdewirtschaftsmeister, teach and train in North Rhine-Westphalia (langehanenberg.de).
- See more at: http://dressagetoday.com/article/horse_submission_052110-12420#sthash.BexlGPR6.dpuf
Ceva Animal Health Pty Ltd 10/29/14
Department of Health and Human Services | Public Health Service Food and Drug Administration |
Rockville, MD 20855 |
October 29, 2014
WARNING LETTER
Via UPS
Mr. Mark Prikazky
Ceva Animal Health Pty Ltd
11 Moores Rd.
Glenorie New South Wales 2157 Australia
Dear Mr. Prikazky:
This letter concerns the marketing of several products under the Nature Vet brand name including, but not limited to, Omoguard Paste, Thiazine 100 Injection, Glucosamine 200 Injection, Gentamax 100 Injection, and Ferrocyl Injection by your firm Ceva Animal Health Pty Ltd. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) reviewed your website at the internet address horsemedsonline.com, where you promote and sell these products.
We have determined that the above referenced products are intended for use in the mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease in animals and/or to affect the structure of function of the body of animals, which makes them drugs under section 201 (g)(1) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (the FD&C Act) [21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)]. Under the FD&C Act, drugs intended for use in animals require an approved new animal drug application unless they are generally recognized as safe and effective. As discussed below, we have determined that these drugs are not generally recognized as safe and effective, and are therefore unsafe under section 512(a)(1) of the FD&C Act (21 U.S.C. § 360b(a)], and adulterated under section 501(a)(5) of the FD&C Act [21 U.S.C. § 351(a)(5)], because you are marketing them without approved new animal drug applications.
Statements on your website and product labeling that show these products are intended for use in the mitigation, treatment or prevention of disease in animals and/or to affect the structure or function of the body of animals include, but are not limited to, the following:
Omoguard Paste
• "Once-daily omeprazole for treatment and prevention of gastric ulcers in horses and foals."
Thiazine 100 Injection
• "Xylazine sedative,
analgesic and muscle relaxant"
• "In combination with Ketamine to induce full surgical anaesthesia [sic]. Postanaesthesia [sic] to smooth difficult recoveries."
Glucosamine 200 Injection
• "Anti-Inflammatory, Anti-Arthritic
& Chondroprotective Agent for IV Use in Horses."
Gentamax 100 Injection
• "Broad spectrum gentamicin antibiotic"
• " ... indicated in infections in horses, dogs and cats which are known to be responsive to Gentamicin."
Ferrocyl Injection
• " ... an injectible organic arsenic and mineral treatment for anaemias and debilitated states in horses."
The above referenced products are only a sampling of the violative products you are currently marketing. Similarly, the above referenced claims are only a sampling of statements that demonstrate the intended uses of your products.
Because the above referenced products are intended to mitigate, treat, or prevent disease in animals and/or to affect the structure of function of the body of animals, they are drugs within the meaning of section 201(g)(1) of the FD&C Act [21 U.S.C. § 321(g)(1)]. Further, these products are new animal drugs, as defined by section 201(v) of the FD&C Act [21 U.S.C. § 321(v)], because they are not generally recognized among experts qualified by scientific training and experience to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of animal drugs, as safe and effective for use under the conditions prescribed, recommended, or suggested in the labeling.
To be legally marketed, a new animal drug must have an approved new animal drug application, conditionally approved new animal drug application, or index listing under sections 512, 571, and 572 of the FD&C Act [21 U.S.C. §§ 360b, 360ccc, and 360ccc-1]. The above referenced products are not approved or index listed by the FDA, and therefore the products are considered unsafe under section 512(a)(1) of the FD&C Act [21 U.S.C. § 360b(a)], and adulterated under section 501 (a)(5) of the FD&C Act [21 U.S.C. § 351 (a)(5)]. Introduction of an adulterated drug into interstate commerce is prohibited under section 301(a) of the FD&C Act [21 U.S.C. § 331(a)].
This letter is not intended to be an all-inclusive review of your products and their promotion. It is your responsibility to ensure that all of your products are in compliance with the Act and its implementing regulations. Failure to promptly correct the violations specified above may result in enforcement action without further notice. Enforcement action may include seizure of violative products and/or injunction against the manufacturers and distlibutors of violative products
You should notify this office, in writing, within fifteen (15) working days of the receipt of this letter of the steps you have taken to bting your finn into compliance with the law. Your response should include any documentation necessary to show that correction has been achieved. If corrective action cannot be completed within fifteen (15) working days, state the reason for the delay and the date by which the corrections will be completed. Include copies of any available documentation demonstrating that corrections have been made.
Please direct your response to Dillard
H. Woody Jr., Supervisor, Post Market Compliance Team at the U.S. Food and Drug Administration with the Center for Veterinary Medicine, 7519 Standish Place, Rockville, MD 20855-2773. If you have any questions about this letter, please contact Dillard Woody
at 240-276-9237.
Sincerely,
/S/
EricNelson, Director
Division of Compliance (HFV-230)
Office of Surveillance & Compliance
Center for Veterinary Medicine
Question: I have often read that a desirable trait of a good dressage horse is to be “quick behind.” What does that mean, and how can I tell if the hind legs are quick by looking?
Name withheld by request
If a horse is going to progress up the levels and become a competitive FEI dressage horse with aspirations of competing at Intermediaire and Grand Prix, he must clearly and willingly bend the joints of his hindquarters and hind legs and step under
his body actively. The ability to do this helps a horse to be able and willing to piaffe, which is important at those levels of competition. This ability to be “quick,” in my opinion, is one of the main reasons why we see such a difference in the
quality of the modern sport horses versus the old-fashioned, heavier horses of the past.
We often see examples of elastic but inactive movers who are quite competitive at the lower levels but struggle as they progress up the levels
because of their tendency to be “lazy” and “slow” behind and/or unable to articulate the joints of their hindquarters and legs. If the horse is able to step under correctly, he lightens and/or raises his forehand and provides shoulder
freedom. If the hocks trail or the toes of the hind feet drag, the horse cannot engage correctly.
Correct engagement results in carrying power. It is exhibited in the weight-bearing phase of the hind legs during movement. The horse
increases the flexion of the lumbosacral joint as well as the joints of his hind legs during this phase. In contrast, a Hackney pony has quite active hocks that articulate up and out behind his body. This flexion of the joints is not engagement.
Credit: Courtesy, Janet “Dolly” Hannon
This horse is dragging
his hind toe, which is an example of negative DAP.In order to see the level of engagement, watch the bending or articulation of the horse’s joints in his hindquarters and legs and look for positive diagonal advanced placement (DAP).
This means that the hind feet land slightly before the front feet in the diagonal pairs (as seen in the trot photo on this page). With excellent uphill movers, there’s another visual indicator of positive DAP: The horse appears to round his loin and
lower his croup. The best example of this is a correct piaffe. But you can also see it in correctly ridden downward transitions where the horse steps under and carries his weight behind while staying active.
During downward transitions,
you can feel when a horse is active behind: He feels like he wants to carry you. He stays fluid during transitions and always feels ready to go again as opposed to resting and getting sluggish with his hind legs.
If a horse has negative
DAP, it means he is on his forehand. The front feet land slightly in front of the hind feet of the diagonal pair. The photo shown below is a horse with negative DAP. Before he is warmed up, he drags his hind toes and his hind legs swing out behind him instead
of bending and coming under his body more.
A horse can learn to be quicker and more active behind through correct training, but it is easier to develop a horse that naturally offers it.
Credit: Bob Tarr
Janet “Dolly” Hannon is a USEF “S” dressage
judge, the chairperson of the USDF Freestyle Committee and a former member of the USDF Judges Committee. Based in Arvada, Colorado, she trains at Legacy Valley Farm.
- See more at: http://dressagetoday.com/article/quick-25520?utm_source=DressageTodayFB&utm_medium=link&utm_campaign=Facebook#sthash.fExTakTt.dpuf
A recent study of dressage horses in Germany that looked at rein length and tension revealed a surprising finding: horses who were regularly trained in ground work/in-hand work had lower heart rates during ridden work than all of the other participating horses. This wasn’t what the researchers were investigating, but it was clear in the results. From this, the researchers concluded that, “Perhaps horses trained in ground work had more trust in their rider.”
So why would it be true that horses who regularly learn via ground work/in-hand work are more relaxed? There are a few possibilities.
1) Horses trained regularly with ground work are more relaxed because their trainers are more relaxed. It’s possible that humans who take the time to teach their horses from the ground are less goal oriented and more concerned with the process. They may be more relaxed in general and foster this same relaxation in their horses. As you are, so is your horse.
2) Horses trained regularly with ground work have trainers who are more educated about a horse’s balance. Their horses learn to move in correct balance which allows them to be healthy and sound in their bodies and, therefore, more relaxed. Physical balance is emotional balance.
3) Horses trained regularly with ground work understand the trainer’s criteria better. They have mastered the response to an aid before the rider mounts and know the “right answer” already once under saddle. They don’t experience any conflict when the rider asks for a behavior because the neural pathway has already been installed. They are more relaxed about being ridden because it rarely has caused confusion for them.
When I got my first horse I had the idea that ground work was important but I had no idea why or what it was I should specifically be doing. I muddled my way through some of John Lyon’s Ground Control Manual but I didn’t really understand how to use it to benefit me or my horse. I’ve learned so much since then! Now I know there are so many things you can teach your horse from the ground. You can teach him motor patterns like walk, trot, canter and whoa. You can teach him the verbal cues for those motor patterns. You can teach him the physical aid you will be using from the saddle to elicit those motor patterns while you are on the ground. You can teach him how to move in balance so he is better prepared to carry you. You can teach him how to give at the jaw. You can teach him how to bend correctly. You can and should teach the beginning of lateral work from the ground. And finally, you can teach him more advanced work like shoulder-in, haunches-in, haunches out, school-halt, piaffe and levade.
For us highly visual humans I think that ground work is often a better way to begin exercises because we are much better at seeing our horse doing the right thing than feeling it from the saddle. Often, my feel in the saddle is enhanced by the fact that I have watched my horse perform an exercise over and over in our in-hand work. It feels how it looks. In-hand work is also a good way to teach our horses because our own bodies are often more in balance when we are walking beside our horses. With the ground under our feet we are able to be more relaxed if something goes wrong and less likely to be so busy wrapped up in our own balance that we give our horses conflicting or confusing aids. It’s a good place to figure things out. I am a huge fan of in-hand work.
I’m glad to learn research revealed ground work is good for horses. Horses with a low heart rate are relaxed and relaxed horses perform better and live longer. In this day and age of people starting horses under saddle in under an hour and increasing monetary rewards for the “young horse dressage program“, everything seems to be done in a hurry. The entire horse culture seems to privilege “getting up there and riding your horse”. But as one of my favorite writers and accomplished horsewoman,Teresa Tsimmu Martino writes, “In today’s horse culture there are clinics that brag about starting a colt in a day, as if the quickness of it was the miracle. But old horse people know it takes years to create art. Horses as great masterpieces are not created in a day. An artist does not need to rush.” We need more scientific studies like this one to encourage us to slow down and take our time with our horses.
So why were the horses in the study more relaxed? Likely it was a combination of all three factors – a relaxed trainer, better overall balance and clear understanding of criteria. These are things that matter to your horse, and yes, will allow him to trust you when you ride. Take some time to slow down and work from the ground, learn a bit more about equine balance and teach new things in-hand before asking for them under saddle. You can take your riding to a whole new level and help your horse become more healthy and relaxed in the process.
(For more information on good ground work/in-hand work you can reference:
John Lyon’s Ground Control Manual
Alexandra Kurland’s Why Would You Leave Me? DVD
Kip Mistral’s Horse Training In-Hand )
An amazing article on why horses should not be blanketed in winter
This is the best, all encompassing science on why horses should not be blanketed or groomed in winter and fed free-choice grass hay 24/7. Well done! Natalija! All documented and referenced at the end.
By: Natalija Aleksandrova
Holistic Horse & Hoof Care
In order for a mammal to survive, internal body temperature is kept within a very narrow range. If the temperature exceeds these limits either above or below, the chemical reactions on the cellular level function improperly. Or they stop functioning at all. Fluctuations outside of the normal temperature range result in health problems or death of the animal. Mature horses maintain their internal body temperature at a range around 38℃. Foals, rapidly growing youngsters, pregnant and lactating mares have a higher norm of their internal body temperature (Hines, 2004). Most horse owners are aware of the damage and crisis inherent with fever states. Few horse owners realize how well adapted horses are to deal with cold when certain aspects of their lifestyle are in place for them.
Over thousands of years, the wild horse has spread over the entire world. Whatever place in the world they live, the horse was exposed to constantly changing temperature — through a day/night rhythm or a seasonal rhythm. Yet even today wild and semi-wild horses, as well as domestic ones, provided with species appropriate living conditions, survive perfectly any conditions Nature exposes them to. Whether it is the north of Europe, or Australian deserts, the horse is exposed to all of Nature’s changing elements — wind, sun, rain, snow, fluctuating temperature, etc. Never in nature seeking such excessive enclosed shelters as man-made stables and barns nor caves, never in nature seeking ways of covering themselves with fabric. The horse has naturally evolved ways of thriving.
Heat in the horse’s body is continuously generated as a by-product of metabolism, and a healthy animal has significant internal sources of heat from the metabolic processes (Bicego at al., 2007). To control internal heat loss during the cold time of year, the horse is provided by Nature with complicated and extremely efficient anatomical, physiological and behavioral thermoregulatory mechanisms. In order that the mechanisms are used in the most efficient way, or at all, the horse requires conditions equaling species appropriate lifestyle environments.
On a genetic level, the domestic horse is the same as its wild counterpart: it has the same abilities and needs to survive. Basically, they do not need anything more from the human than only to provide keeping conditions that this species is supposed to have by dictate of Nature: freedom of movement 24 hours a day, free access to appropriate food 24 hours a day, herd life, proper hoof care, shelter which it can enter and leave freely. Under human care that respects the horse’s natural needs, and provides it doesn’t make this animal a subject for anthropomorphism through stabling, changing eating habits, blanketing, clipping, shoeing, etc., the domestic horse is able to properly use its amazing natural thermoregulatory abilities exactly the same way as the wild horse.
Let’s take a deeper look into how the thermoregulatory mechanisms work in the horse, and how it can be interfered with and damaged through unnatural care and keeping practices.
Coat in an Arabian breed horse on a very cold winter day (around –27˚C/–17˚F, Central Europe.The piloerection mechanism in use — the hair is raised to increase coat insulation.
Cooling down after playing. Icelandic breed
horse, Central Europe.
Photo © K. Jarczewski
First what is important to remember, is that due to some thermoregulatory factors such as the skin and coat being very good insulators, which prevent heat loss, and the muscles producing heat through their movements, it is far easier for horses to warm up in cold weather than to cool down in hot weather, or to cool down after intensive exercising. Cooling down is more difficult for the horse. Horses are adapted to handle cold.The horse’s skin is responsible both for protecting the interior of the body from outside temperature changes. As well as for not allowing heat loss in cold weather. Also it needs to be mentioned that the skin is responsible for dissipation of internal heat generated by muscle action to prevent the body from over-heating. The skins’ thermoregulatory mechanisms consist of four major factors, skin, coat, arteries and sweat glands, three of which are responsible for keeping the horse warm in a cold weather:1. The skin itself works as an insulating layer through its relative thickness.2. The coat.The coat insulation depends on the depth and thickness of the hair layer, the wind speed and the temperature and humidity gradients within the coat (Ousey et al., 1992).The coat, in horses, changes twice a year through the mechanism called photoperiodism, adapting to different seasonal base temperatures. Sensors in the horse’s skin react to the daytime light length changes. The horse is ready to grow their winter coat right after the summer solstice, when days start getting shorter. The horse is ready to change their winter coat to a summer one right after the winter solstice, when days start getting longer.In addition to photoperiod, environmental temperature also affects hair growth. Colder climates produce thicker and longer coats in horses than warmer climates do, when comparing horses who have the same body score and are fed the same amount of food.Also coat growth is affected by some other factors, for example, feeding and horse breed which will be explained later in this text.Additionally to growing its coat, the horse can increase the insulation of the coat through the mechanism called piloerection — raising, lowering or turning in different directions the hair in the coat via hair erector muscles. This way the horse increases or decreases the thickness of the insulation layer and efficiently varies the amount of airflow to the skin surface. Piloerection increases coat depth 10% to 30% in mature horses (Young & Coote, 1973). The hair erector muscles must be exercised regularly in order to work properly, as with any other muscle in the body.Hairs of the coat are covered with a greasy substance, which helps the horse not to get wet to the skin on rainy or snowy days. The coat has a water-repelling effect through the hair grease — water runs down the outer hair while the deeper coat remains dry. The longer the coat, the less chance water has to get to the skin. Through regular coat brushing the greasy substance gets removed, and the water-repelling effect gets impaired.Not advisable either is to clean off the layer of dirt that rolling in mud ensures a horse. The mud has protective effects to the body.Needless to say that the popular practice of clipping the hair of a horse’s coat eliminates, completely, the thermoregulatory factor of the coat.3. Arteries in the skin.Arteries through muscle actions, called vasoconstriction or vasodilation, can be narrowed or enlarged, regulating blood flow to the skin. Constricting prevents internal heat loss by reducing the amount of warm blood brought to the cooler body surface. Dilation allows for a larger amount of hot blood from over-heated interiors to reach the body surface and to be cooled. The cooled blood lowers internal body temperature when it’s returned back to the interior of the body.4. Sweat glands.The horse uses sweat glands to cool down at a time when external or internal temperatures are too hot. When the outside temperature is too high for the air to cool the blood through the skin, the sweat glands secrete fluid. Evaporation of this fluid cools the skin surface and the blood in the surface arteries. In this way, bringing the cooled blood to the internal body, the temperature internally can be lowered even when it is hot outside. The horse stops secreting sweat as soon as the internal body temperature has reached it’s norm. Then it must dry quickly, since otherwise cooling would continue and bring body temperature below normal limits. A sweaty horse turns its coat hairs in various directions in order to avoid under-cooling and given freedom usually seeks a windy spot to effectively fast and safely dry itself. Mentioning the sweat glands mechanism is important because sweat glands are also brought into function through muscle action.
While those are the skins’ four major factors of thermoregulation mechanisms let’s now look into other thermoregulatory mechanisms available to the horse.
Frost on the coat — heat escaped the body.
Water running down the long winter hair, the undercoat staying dry.
The amount of fat in the body is also an important factor of thermoregulation. Since, in addition to being the body’s energy reserve, fat is three times more insulating than other tissues due to its low thermal conductivity and poor blood supply (Guyton, 1991; Davenport, 1992). Thus it is important for a horse to have a good layer of fat before winter. Wild horses and naturally kept domestic horses maintain the natural rhythm of weight change throughout the year with their weight growing up to 20% by the Autumn. Usually we can see that domestic horses with a thicker fat layer in their bodies grow a comparatively shorter winter coat than horses with less fat gain at Autumn, comparing the same breed and the same body score animals. Also fat gets distributed more evenly over the body surface in cold conditions instead of being concentrated in some particular areas as in hot conditions.
Kept in the same conditions, smaller horse breeds have a longer/thicker coat compared to larger breeds. Also we see a typically thicker coat in foals. This is connected to a great effect of allometry, the systematic change in body proportions with increasing body size, on heat balance within animal species. Changes within species occur as animals grow and develop but exist also between breeds of species (Reiss, 1991; Langlois, 1994). Generally, large body size is an advantage with respect to thermoregulation in the cold. Since, the ratio of heat-dissipating surface area to heat-producing/retaining body mass decreases with increasing body size (Phillips & Heath, 1995; Bligh, 1998). Therefore, large size horses have less relative surface area available for heat exchange, and thus importantly lose less heat in the cold than small size horses do. Small horses lose more body heat than large horses do. In addition to large body size, a spherical body shape reduces the surface area to body mass ratio (Langlois, 1994). To compensate for the bigger surface/mass ratio northern-type horses generally have evolved heavier rounder bodies with shorter limbs and extremities which are well protected by thick hair, mane and fetlock, therefore being more able to retain more body heat and cope with cold.
Increasing feed intake increases heat production in the horse’s body. This is connected to the fact that the process of digesting long fibers produces heat as a by-product. It is important that every domestic horse has unrestricted access to hay 24 hours a day. In cold weather having a chance of increasing heat production through continuously consuming and digesting long fiber. Especially when some of the other thermoregulatory mechanisms aren’t yet adjusted in suddenly changing weather conditions such as a rapid drop of temperature.
Such extra demand for feed is called climatic energy demand (MacCormak & Bruce, 1991). Horses have been observed to need about 0.2 to 2.5% more energy for maintenance per 1 degree Celsius drop in outside temperature below their lower critical temperature (Young Coote, 1973; McBride et al., 1985; Cymbaluk et al., 1989a; Cymbaluk, 1990). (Lower critical temperature is individual for every horse/group of horses at different times of year and depends on many other thermoregulatory and environmental factors.)
Importantly, smaller-sized horses have greater lower critical temperature values meaning their heat loss is relatively greater than for larger horses. Thus small-sized horses actually need proportionally more additional feed. To explain further, the greater that the lower critical temperature value is — the more heat loss the animal experiences. Small-sized horse breeds lose more heat than big-sized horse breeds in the same temperature conditions. The lower that the lower critical temperature value is, the greater the heat retention is that the animal experiences. Bigger-sized horse breeds stay warmer in cold weather.
Feral horses have been reported to reduce locomotor activity in winter compared to summer (Duncan, 1980; Berger et al., 1999; Arnold et al., 2006). Reduced activity in winter was an annual pattern related to decreased outside temperature and hence to a reduction in internal heat production and energy expenditure (Arnold et al., 2006). This adaptation mechanism of reducing activity helps wild horses to cope with the energetic challenge of winter. We can observe similar reduction of activity in winter in domestic horses kept naturally. Though the domestic horses aren’t challenged with a necessity to search for food in winter to the same extent as their wild counterparts. This slowing down in their activity obviously has the same purpose as in the wild horses — the reduction of energy expenditure in the cold. Thus, it is a normal seasonal rhythm in the horse to be less exercised in winter due to this cold adaptational thermoregulation mechanism, therefore it is not advisable to forcefully exercise horses in winter.
Along with general reduction of activity in the cold, we have observed in horses, short sessions of restlessness and locomotor activity (movement) during sudden acute cold periods and adverse weather. Short term beneficial movement that is a useful bridge until other factors of their thermoregulatory system adjust to the new temperature conditions.
Sometimes we can observe horses standing or lying down very close to each other, this way they reduce heat loss via r
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